A 2006 study evaluates a wide array of proposed determinants of in-migration to states between 2000 and 2004. The authors find that median household income and per-pupil education spending positively impacted in-migration, while higher cost of living, higher state income taxes, and disamenities, such as hazardous waste sites, deterred in-migration.[103] A 2013 analysis of rural-to-urban migration finds that distance, unemployment and risk of unemployment as well as lack of industrial match deter individuals from moving to a new location. It observes that natural amenities drew migrants, as did higher per-capita public spending.[104]
These findings once again highlight the delicate balance policymakers must confront if attempting to attract new residents. Subsidizing wages or increasing public spending might draw some residents, but the higher taxes and cost of living increase that would result from that spending will deter others.